Mexican art can be classified into three periods: Pre-Hispanic (1500 BC-AD 1525), Colonial (1525-1810), and Modern (1810-present). With the arrival of the Spanish, Mexican art changed dramatically, but its indigenous roots still influence artists today.
Early Mexican history comes to life in the art and architecture of this period. The pre-Hispanic forms of architecture are often inseparable from the religion that produced them: from pyramids to ritual ball courts, the ruins evoke the vanished traditions of pre-Hispanic Mexico. Despite the differences between the civilizations that made their home here, common architectural elements like the use of stone are noticeable across Mexico. The Olmecs (1200-1500 BC) shaped basalt into the famous colossal heads. The Toltecs (AD 850-1100) built the Atlantes columns out of stone to support the temple that once stood atop the Pyramid of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli at Tula. The Maya (AD 300-900) and Aztecs (AD 1200-1500) used limestone and sandstone as building blocks for palaces, temples, altars, and stelae (upright stone monuments often inscribed with glyphs and reliefs). Capital cities such as Teotihuacán (Mayan), Tula (Toltec), and Tenochtitlán (Aztec) exhibit the use of monumental stone architecture in buildings, carved reliefs, and statuaries.
On a smaller scale, some of the most impressive pieces of pre-Hispanic art are carved jade and ceramic figurines. Mayan and Aztec gods and nobility were often depicted adorned with massive headdresses replete with feathers, necklaces of egg-sized beads, and bracelets of copper and gold to match the enormous bangles hanging from their earlobes.
Pre-Hispanic peoples also used art to tell stories that were central to their way of life. Murals, such as those covering the walls at the Mayan site of Bonampak , reveal scenes of warfare, sacrifice, and celebration. Fresco-like paintings on interior walls of buildings at Teotihuacán depict paradise scenes, floral arrangements, religious rituals, and athletic events. Similarly, scenes painted onto pottery depict mythological stories. Other reliefs and objects reveal calendrical events and dates—the Aztec Stone of the Sun is a famous example. This prophetic calendar weighs over 20 metric tons and measures nearly four meters in diameter. Its concentric rings contain the four symbols of previous suns (jaguar, wind, rain of fire, and water), each of which represents a different epoch. The Aztecs believed they were living under the fifth and final sun—the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores would later fulfill their prophecy.
The Spanish used colonial art to facilitate conquest and religious indoctrination of the indígenas, erasing local religions by building Catholic churches directly on top of existing temples and pyramids.
Franciscan, Dominican, and Augustinian missionaries used distinct styles in building churches and monasteries. The Franciscan style tended to be economic, while the Dominican style was more ascetic and harsh. The Augustinian architects indulged in gratuitous decoration whenever possible. Some remarkable buildings include the Monastery of St. Augustín of Acolman near Mexico City and the Monastery of Actopán in Hidalgo, where the frescoes exhibit indigenous influences.
The steady growth of the Catholic Church throughout the 17th and 18th centuries necessitated the construction of cathedrals, parochial chapels, and convents. The luxurious Baroque facades of the cathedrals in Chihuahua and Zacatecas teem with dynamic images of angels and saints aimed at producing a feeling of awe and respect in the recently converted indígenas. Baroque expression is also reflected in the works of artists Alonso López de Herrera (c. 1580-1660) and Baltazar de Echave Orio (1558-1623). The genre of portraiture also became popular in colonial times; one of its most famous artists was Miguel Cabrera (1695-1768), whose paintings adorn churches in Querétaro and Taxco.
Luxury, frivolity, and ornamentation became more prevalent in the works of the artists and builders of the 18th century. While the Mexican High Baroque reached its extreme, the Churrigueresque style, a Spanish version of the opulent and graceful Rococo style, brought further turns of excess into the world of Mexican architecture. Sculpted rays of light and garlands graced the interiors of Churrigueresque churches, and the intricately decorated estípites (pilasters), a hallmark of the style, were installed for looks rather than support. Neoclassicism replaced the Rococo style as Spain asserted its dominance over the Mexican colony. With independence from Spain in 1821, Mexican artists began to break away from Spanish artistic traditions and follow the cultural currents of Europe. Although the Neoclassical style persisted in government-sponsored works, foreign travelers soon introduced Romanticism, and later Realism, styles that allowed artists to explore elements of their indigenous past.
One of the most important painters of turn-of-the-century Mexico was José María Velasco (1840-1912), whose landscapes of the Valle de Mexico anticipated Cubism. On the political front of art, José Guadalupe Posada’s (1852-1913) famous calavera (skeleton) cartoons and engravings criticized the Porfiriato; these later became an inspiration for politicians and artists alike. Gerardo Murillo (1875-1964) took on the name Doctor Atl, a Náhuatl word meaning water, and is well known for painting volcanoes with “Atl-colors” (pigments dried with resin).
As the Revolution reduced their land to shambles, Mexican artists further rejected European models by developing a national style that better reflected Latin American culture. After the Revolution, Mexican artists became intent on building the concept of Mexico as a nation, and were eager to use art to do so. Using a Mexican art form dating back to the early days of the Spanish conquest, when evangelists used allegorical murals to teach indígenas the rudiments of Christian iconography, the Minister of Public Education, José Vasconcelos (1882-1959), commissioned muralistas to decorate the walls of hospitals, colleges, schools and ministries.
Diego Rivera (1886-1957), the most renowned of the muralistas, based his artwork on political themes including land reform, Marxism, and the marginalization of indígena life. He used stylized realism to portray the dress, action, and expression of the Mexican people, and natural realism—complete with ugly faces, knotted brows, and angry stances—to represent Spaniards and other oppressors of the indígenas. His innovative blend of Mexican history and culture reached a wide audience and embroiled Rivera in international controversy.
Though Rivera is credited as the first to forge the path for muralistas, two other artists were vital in defining the art form: José Clemente Orozco (1883-1949), whose dark, angular shapes captured the brooding nature of his works’ racial themes, and David Alfaro Siqueiros (1896-1974), who brought new materials and dramatic revolutionary themes to his murals. The Cubist-influenced artist Rufino Tamayo (1899-1991) also adopted the use of murals, but to a less politically charged end than the other muralists who preceded him.
Not all 20th-century Mexican artists exchanged the traditional canvas for walls. By combining abstract art with realism, Juan Soriano (1920-2006) forged a name for himself as a painter and sculptor. Surrealist painter Frida Kahlo (1907-54) is the only 20th-century Mexican painter with a place in the Louvre. Both Rivera and Kahlo, who shared two turbulent marriages to one another, blended indigenous subject matter with stylistic modernism. Crippled by both polio and a trolley accident that made her infertile, Kahlo was confined to a wheelchair for much of her life and her paintings and self-portraits are icons of pain. In the world of photography, Mexico’s master Manuel Álvarez Bravo (1902-2002) brought the art of the lens to the fore. A photographer for Sergei Eisenstein’s unfinished ¡Qué Viva Mexico! , Álvarez Bravo exhibited at New York’s Julien Levy Gallery with Henri Cartier-Bresson and Walker Evans, advancing a new Mexican style of photography characterized by an attention to everyday and indigenous life.
Research indicates that Náhuatl and Mayan were the two dominant languages in Mexico before the arrival of the Spaniards. Dating back to 600 BC, the glyphs inscribed at San José Mogote and Monte Albán , are thought to be the earliest examples of Mesoamerican writing. The tumultuous conquest and imposition of the Spanish language resulted in the loss of valuable information relating to indígena language and culture. The conquistadors burned Mayan and Aztec códices (unbound “books” or manuscripts), considering them an affront to Christianity. Nevertheless, a number of códices and a handful of narrative works survived, notably the Mayan Books of Chilam Balam, Annals of the Cakchiquel, and Popul Vuh, the book of creation. Rabinal Achi, the story of a sacrificed Mayan warrior, is considered to be the only surviving example of pre-Hispanic drama.
The Spanish eagerly sent news home about their conquered land and the Mexican way of life. Letters, including Hernán Cortés’s (1485-1547) Cartas de relación (Letters of Relation), were mainly crown- and church-flattering documents detailing the ongoing efforts to educate and convert indígenas. One of Cortés’s soldiers, Bernal Díaz del Castillo (1495-1584), wrote of the conquistadors’ feats in La conquista de Nueva España (The Conquest of New Spain), while Fray Bartolomé de las Casas’s (1474-1566) Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias (Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies) is hailed as a humanistic defense of the indigenous people. Also known as the Florentine codex, Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva España (General History of the Things of New Spain) by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún (c. 1500-90) is a compilation of Aztec history and culture in Náhuatl and Spanish.
Poetry also rose to prominence in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Mexican literary culture. Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1648-1695), a criolla of illegitimate birth who joined a convent in pursuit of an education, became a master lyricist known for her wit. Her most famous works are “Respuesta a Sor Filotea” (“Response to Sor Filotea”) and “Hombres necios” (“Injudicious Men”).
By the start of the 19th century, the struggle for independence became the central topic in most Mexican texts. In 1816, Mexican journalist José Fernández de Lizardi (1776-1827) wrote what is considered the first Latin American novel, El periquillo sarniento (The Itching Parrot), a satire of Mexico’s social status quo. Using historical themes to mask sweeping indictments of the military and clergy, Mexican novelists such as Manuel Payno (1810-94) sought to define a new national identity by glorifying strength, secularism, progress, and education.
Literature during the Porfiriato period (1876-1911) abandoned Romanticism for rational Realism. Most writers, however, avoided critiquing the political regime, since that would most likely lead to incarceration. During the late 19th century, the modernismo trend emphasized the value of pure aesthetics and reshaped Mexican literature under the direction of core figures like Amado Nervo (1870-1919). Nervo, the famed “monk of poetry,” abandoned the clergy to pursue his writing. In addition to his first and most famous work, El Bachiller (The Baccalaureate) he produced several collections of introspective and often mystical poetry, notably Serenidad (Serenity), Elevación (Elevation), and Plenitud (Plenitude).
The desire to reintegrate vestiges of pre-Hispanic culture into the national tradition pervaded post-Revolutionary era Mexican literature. Works produced immediately after the Revolution highlighted social themes, particularly the plight of Mexico’s indígenas. Mariano Azuela (1873-1952), who joined Pancho Villa’s forces in 1915, relates first-hand the military exploitation of indígenas in Los de abajo (The Underdogs). Similar works, such as El indio (The Indian) by Gregorio López y Fuentes (1895-1966), reinstated the novel as a vehicle of social reform. Octavio Paz (1914-1998), the first Mexican writer to win a Nobel Prize, drew on Marxism, Romanticism, and postmodernism in exploring the making and unmaking of a national archetype in such works as El laberinto de la soledad (The Labyrinth of Solitude).
The 1960s saw the advent of Magical Realism, a literary movement that blends the ordinary and common with fantasy and wonder, resulting in texts that portray a dreamlike and distorted reality. At the forefront of this movement in Mexico stands Carlos Fuentes (b.1928), an acclaimed contemporary novelist whose many works include La región más transparente (Where the Air is Clear) and La muerte de Artemio Cruz (The Death of Artemio Cruz).
The work of female writers, such as Laura Esquivel (b.1950), who wrote the fantastical, recipe-laden Como agua para chocolate (Like Water for Chocolate; 1989) has been well received both nationally and internationally. In 1991, Elena Poniatowska (b.1932) wrote Tinísima—a novel recounting the life of activist-photographer Tina Modotti. In the past three decades, the Chicano literary movement has worked to describe the experiences of Mexican immigrants to the US. Sandra Cisneros’s (b.1954) House on Mango Street—a 1984 novel narrated by an 11-year-old girl who talks about her life on both sides of the Mexican border—has made her one of the most recognized Chicana authors today.
Corridos. Usually sung by guitar-plucking troubadours, these songs remain strongly linked to their folk origins. Based in the oral tradition of storytelling, corridos recount the epic deeds of famous, infamous, and occasionally fictional figures from Mexico’s past. A corridista may also function as a walking newspaper, singing songs about the latest natural disaster, political scandal, or any other decisive event. Controversial narcorridos, tales of drug trafficking, have also gained popularity. The outpouring in 2004 of shocked fans in Mexico and the US after corridista Adán “Chalino” Sánchez died in a car accident at the age of 19 revealed the depth of the genre’s appeal.
Mariachi. Black-and-red-clad men with bells and capes—the same ones that appear in tequila ads around the world—have long been popular images of mariachis. The most famous of Mexican musical styles, mariachi is lively and light-hearted, with strong guitar and energetic horn sections. Wandering mariachis strike up in front of restaurants and play at traditional fiestas. The world-famous tradition of women being serenaded by a group of mariachis in Mexican garb is a must for any romantic evening. Traditional mariachi music may deal with one or several of the following topics: being very drunk, being abandoned by a woman, pondering the fidelity of one’s horse, and loving one’s gun. In their more somber (or sober) moments, mariachi songs have also been known to deal with death, politics, and revolutionary history.
Rancheras. Born in a fit of nationalistic fervor following the 1910 Revolution, rancheras were originally conceived as “songs of the people,” dealing with matters of work, love, and land. Once performed with marimba and flute, rancheras are now backed by the guitar and trumpets of mariachi bands. The songs are characterized by a passionate, sincere singing style, with long, drawn-out final notes. Like American country-western music, today’s rancheras are sentimental songs about down-and-out towns, faithful dogs, and love gone wrong. Norteños are a type of ranchera based in the northwest and strongly influenced by polka. Popular norteño bands such as Los Tigres del Norte have attracted a number of fans outside of Mexico.
Mexican music along the east-central coast and continuing into the Yucatán carries a strong dose of Afro-Caribbean rumba. In Veracruz and Quintana Roo, drum-laden bands often strike up irresistible beats in the evening twilight of central plazas. The style has inspired countless marimba bands, whose popularized music can be found blasting in markets throughout Mexico. Imported from Colombia, cumbia has joined salsa as the dance music of choice across central and southern Mexico.
Mexico has not been immune to the Latin music explosion of the late 20th century. Its own varieties of popular and rock music are gaining international popularity, and Mexico has also served as the springboard for hundreds of other latino stars.
Rocanrol. Mexico knows how to rock, since original rock pioneers Maldita Vecindad and El Tri set the stage during the 1960s. Supergroup Maná has been recording music since the 1980s, and their collaboration with Santana on Corazón Espinado brought them global acclaim in 1998. They won the Grammy for Best Latin Rock/Alternative Artist in 2002. In 2003, the same award went to Cafe Tacuba, who mixes ska, rock, and hip hop with traditional Mexican forms of music. El Gran Silencio has also garnered critical acclaim for its innovative blend of norteño influences and modern rock, and the indie band Kinky has been nominated for three Grammys since 2002. Caifanes, a famous band in its own right, later became Jaguares, a socially-conscious rock group that has used lyrics to promote human rights in Ciudad Juárez.
Pop. Mexican fans may shake it to Colombia’s Shakira and Spain’s Enrique Iglesias these days, but the land of rancheras and mariachis has produced many famous artists in its own right. Selena Quintanilla-Pérez, of movie fame, won the Grammy for Best Mexican-American Album before tragically being murdered by an employee in 1995. Luis Miguel, known for his romantic boleros (traditional Spanish dances) and smooth voice, has won a number of Grammys since beginning his career in the 1980s. In the past decade, Tijuana native Julieta Venegas has impressed fans with her virtuosity as a singer-songwriter, and Paulina Rubio and Thalía have progressed from actresses to divas, gaining fans north of the border. The echoes of Mexican folk music also play across the music of Alejandro Fernández, who crossed over from ranchera to pop.
Hip Hop. Mexican hip hop encompasses hybrid rock-rap forms first conceived by Calo in the 1980s. Molotov is well-known for songs like “Gimme the Power” and “Frijolero,” in which they satirize American power in both English and Spanish. Control Machete has been featured in Super Bowl commercials and the Amores Perros soundtrack; Control Machete’s leader Fermín IV recorded the popular “Siempre Peligroso” with Cypress Hill in 1998. These days, Plastilina Mosh reigns supreme in Mexico’s hip hop scene. Just north of the border, Ozomatli is a hip hop group from Los Angeles that addresses social justice issues with a variety of musical styles ranging from reggae to funk.
Over a century old, the Mexican film industry remains a vital part of Mexican culture. With the 1910 Revolution came a slew of documentaries, notably those of the Alva brothers—Carlos, Eduardo, Guillermo, and Salvador. In 1931, Russian filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein began shooting ¡Qué Viva Mexico! (Long Live Mexico!), a social critique intertwined with panoramic shots of Mexican landscapes; although hailed as a masterpiece, it was never completed. The 1940s ushered in the golden age of Mexican cinema, which began with Emilio “El Indio” Fernández’s María Candelaria (1943), a Cannes honoree, and Luis Buñuel’s Los Olvidados (The Forgotten Ones, 1950), a grisly portrait of the Mexico City barrio. Comedian Mario “Cantinflas” Moreno (1911-1993), pioneer of Mexican slapstick, earned the moniker of “the Mexican Charlie Chaplin” for his poor campesino (peasant) character Cantinflas. In 1960, cinema hit a new high when Mexico received its first Oscar nomination for Roberto Gavalín’s Macario, a film about a starving woodcutter who strikes a deal with Death and gets the gift of healing.
Fox Studios built the first American studio in Mexico in 1996 , and a direct-to-video market has flourished alongside increasing Mexican collaboration with Hollywood. María Novaro received critical acclaim for her 1991 hit Danzón, a film about a Mexico City telephone operator who journeys to Veracruz to find ballroom dance and love. Texan Robert Rodriguez gathered a shoestring budget to film 1992’s El Mariachi, which was later followed by Desperado (1995) and Once Upon a Time in Mexico (2003). In 1992, director Alfonso Arau adapted Laura Esquivel’s novel Como agua para chocolate, which held the title of highest-grossing foreign film released in the US until 1997. In 1999, Antonio Serrano’s Sexo, pudor y lágrimas (Sex, Shame, and Tears) smashed movie records, winning five Ariel awards, the Mexican equivalent of an Oscar.
At the turn of the century, Mexican film cemented its place in American culture with two art-house blockbusters: Alejandro González Iñárritu’s Amores perros (Love’s a Bitch; 2000) and Alfonso Cuarón’s Y tu mamá también (And Your Mother; 2001), both starring Mexican heartthrob Gael García Bernal. Bernal went on to star in Carlos Carrera’s El Crimen del Padre Amaro (The Crime of Father Amaro; 2003) and numerous Spanish- and English-language films. Iñárritu later filmed 21 Grams (2003), while Cuarón brought his take on male adolescence to the set of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004).
Mexican television can, for the most part, be broken down into four different categories: telenovelas (soap operas), comedias (comedic variety shows), noticias (news shows), and imported international TV dubbed into Spanish. Of these, telenovelas are second to none and occupy huge chunks of mid-afternoon and prime-time television. Mexico’s first globally exported soap opera, the 1979 series Los Ricos También Lloran (The Rich Cry Too), drew millions of loyal international viewers. Though sitcoms are not terribly popular, Mexico loves its variety shows, which feature sketch comedy intermixed with musical numbers and audience participation. The long-running sketch comedy show Chespirito is so popular that its characters have become cultural icons; it was the inspiration for Bumblebee Man on The Simpsons. News and current events shows are popular in the late evenings, but fútbol matches dominate airwaves at all hours, especially during the World Cup.
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