New Zealand History And Current Events

Don’t be fooled by New Zealand’s reserved demeanor on the world stage. Despite its relative brevity, the country’s history is fast and tumultuous—better befitting its dramatic geological beginnings than its current reputation. In just 800 years, the islands have become fertile ground for not one, but two unique peoples and cultures: the Polynesian Maori and the white European Pakeha (although some take issue with the name). While it may seem that modern New Zealand follows the pattern of conquest, colonization, and eventual independence, the country and its peoples have a fiercely independent streak that continue to make it an intriguing study of struggle and resolution.

For nearly 680 million years, New Zealand was a land without people. Initially part of the large land mass Gondwana, 80 million years ago the islands pried loose from the continent and were swept away. The country rested upon its spiny mountain ranges—topped by glacier covered Aoraki/Mt. Cook (3794m) of South Island and the volcanic Mt. Ruapehu (2797m) of North Island—and waited. The ancient primordial landscape of kaori forests flourished despite geological instability and proved to be a fertile home to big game birds like the moa. However, it was the 18,000km of coast line with its golden shores and deep harbors that first drew attention from Polynesian canoes and European ships that carried New Zealand’s future inhabitants.

Ancient Myth

Maori legend has two separate tales that account for the dramatic creation of the islands. At the beginning of time, Papa (the earth) and Rangi (the sky) clung together in darkness. Forced to live in darkness, their children schemed to separate sky and earth and bring light into the world. The god Tane placed his shoulders against the sky and his feet agains the earth and finally drove a wedge between Papa and Rangi, flooding the world with light. Tane’s brother, Tawhirimatea, was angered by his brother’s inconsiderate act and joined his father in the sky, becoming the god of wind and storms. Distraught by their separation, Papa and Rangi wept due to their separation, their tears forming the rain, dew, and ever-present mists that blanket Aotearoa, the “land of the long white cloud.”

The tale of the irreverent and mischievous Maui, one of the most beloved demigods of Polynesian myth, was developed to complement the early tale of Papa and Rangi. One day, Maui stowed away on his brothers’ fishing trip and cast a hook made from his grandmother’s jawbone and baited with blood from his own nose. Something tugged at the line. This fish, when brought to the surface, extended everywhere. To bring the fish into the boat, Maui recited a series of chants to make it lie still. His brothers, jealous of Maui’s catch, hacked bits off the fish. When the sun rose, the fish’s flesh turned solid, rough and mountainous due to the brother’s mutilation. Te ika a Maui (Maui’s fish) became the North Island of New Zealand, while Te waka a Maui (Maui’s canoe) became South Island. Te punga o te waka a Maui (Maui’s anchor) became tiny Stewart Island.

Te Ao Maori (Welcome To The Maori World)

While many Maori and Pakeha credit the great navigator Kupe with the discovery of New Zealand, research indicates that the beginnings of Maori settlement remain a mystery. It is known that the ancestors of the modern Maori came to New Zealand from the Polynesian Islands in about AD 1300. Led by the Great Fleet of seven canoes, the Maoris colonized the islands, eventually cutting all ties with their Polynesian ancestors. While tribal life was highly communal, the Maori were fiercely territorial, and intertribal warfare was both brutal and common. Tribes kept close watch over their hunting, fishing, and burial lands. This protective attitude toward their land was in full force hundreds of years later, when they first encountered Europeans.

The European Arrival

The first recorded European to lay eyes on New Zealand was Dutch explorer Abel Tasman. Sent on a mission to chart the southern waters and discover hidden treasures, Tasman laid anchor in South Island’s Golden Bay in 1642. But he never set foot on land. Maori warriors who spotted the boat trumpeted a war cry, and the Dutch sailors mistook the call as one of welcome. The misunderstanding led to the death of four of his men and one Maori leader. Upon returning to Holland, Tasman’s cartographer put the country on the world map for the first time, naming it Nova Zeelandia after a Dutch province.

The first group of Europeans who actually trod upon the uncharted land did not arrive until 1769 on the Endeavour, a British ship captained by the legendary explorer James Cook. In five missions in as many years, Cook mapped the entirety of the New Zealand shoreline, made friendly contact with several Maori tribes, and sent glowing reports of natural splendor and riches to mainland Europe. Although timber was an early cash crop, sealers and whalers were the first to establish outposts on the pristine land in the early 1800s. Missionaries also made an early appearance, but despite their efforts, Christianity failed to spread, as the Maori deemed the religion unsuitable for warriors. Heralding the start of heavier European settlement, independent traders soon arrived, seeking flax and novelty items in exchange for firearms, metal tools, and other European goods.

These increases in interaction lead to cultural clashes, although most often the clashes were between various Maori tribes. Traders brought European diseases, which killed an estimated 25% of the Maori population, while Western weapons escalated Maori violence and increased fatalities. The culmination of this intertribal warfare came in the form of the Musket Wars of 1820-1835, so named after the enormous change the deadly weapons brought to traditional war techniques.

The First Treaty

In 1830, New Zealand was still considered a small trading outpost. While its Australian neighbors had virtually eliminated aboriginal presence on the continent, the few hundred European settlers in New Zealand lived and worked closely with the country’s Maori residents. By 1840, however, the number of European settlers had skyrocketed to just over 2000. The influx of Europeans led to increased tensions with Maori over land and hunting grounds. Encouraged by Maori chiefs, the first British resident, James Busby, and the colonial post in New South Wales, the British Colonial Office sent Captain William Hobson to initiate the transfer of sovereignty over land and government from Maori chiefs to the British in January of 1840. With the help of Busby and his secretary (neither of whom were lawyers), the infirm Hobson wrote the Treaty of Waitangi in just under four days and translated the document into Maori in one evening. On the morning of February 6, 1840, Hobson presented the document to a gathering of 200 Maori chiefs on Busby’s front lawn along the banks of the Waitangi River. The contentious document called for a complete cession of sovereignty by each Maori chief to the Queen of England. In return, it promised the Maori full rights of British citizenship and guaranteed them the use of their lands. More than 40 Maori leaders signed the treaty, after which Captain William Hobson, in a gesture fitting the ceremonial moment, shook each Maori’s hand, proclaiming: “He iwi tahi tatou” (“Now we are one people”).

By September 1840, when the last signature was added to the Treaty, more than 500 signatures had been gathered, though the Treaty still lacked the support of a number of powerful and influential chiefs. Despite the lack of unanimous acceptance of British authority, in May of 1840, Hobson proclaimed full sovereignty over New Zealand. The name Waitangi means “weeping waters.” Before long, the Maori leaders had reason to weep.

Time Of Turbulance

As European settlement increased after 1840, the relationship between the Maori and settlers continued to deteriorate. The Maori began to suspect that they had given up more than they had intended by ceding some of their autonomy to the British. They responded by rebelling against British authority. In 1844, Hone Heke, one of the first chiefs to sign the treaty, cut down the flagpole at Kororareka near Russell , which he saw as a symbol of British oppression of the Maori. The Russell incident marked the beginning of warfare between Heke’s army and British-led forces, which lasted until 1846.

In 1852, the Constitution Act established a settler government with six provinces and a national parliament with a lower and an upper house. The act also granted suffrage to men over 25 with a property qualification. Though it was relatively low, Maori were almost entirely excluded because their land was often held under communal, not individual, titles.

As British governmental influence grew and Pakeha population soared, the Maori became increasingly disturbed to see the body that denied them representation gaining power. Maori tribal leaders urged tribes to unite under one common leader and began the Maori King Movement. Supporters of this policy sought to centralize Maori resources, naming Te Wherowhero of Waikato their king in 1858. The British government refused to recognize the Maori king, whom they viewed as a barrier to further settlement. When violence erupted once again in the Taranaki region in 1860, Sir George Grey blamed the King Movement instead of addressing the recurrent problem of land ownership. He decided to strike at Waikato, the movement’s primary stronghold. The New Zealand Wars (also known as the Maori Wars) exploded across North Island as a result, with British forces gaining victory by 1870.

The Social State

In 1865, the first Native Lands Act established a court to investigate Maori land ownership and distribute official land titles. Unfortunately, this act heavily favored new British arrivals in lieu of the communal Maori tribal system. In 1873, the second Native Lands Act continued to fracture Maori interests and further established that communal lands must split their shared titles among the owners. Disillusioned with the government, the Ngapuhi tribe sent the first of many delegations to England in 1882 to petition Queen Victoria. Although they were never given audience, Maori continued to send representatives to the Crown until the 1920s. By the end of the 19th century, an astounding 92% of New Zealand’s land was out of Maori hands. Even while Maori struggled for their rights, the last decades of the 19th century ushered in an era of dramatic social reforms. Long removed from the global stage by of its remote location, New Zealand came to be known as one of the most socially progressive nations in the world, further encouraging emigration from mainland Europe. Throughout the country, factory conditions improved, conservation efforts increased, and Maori men were given the right to vote. In 1893, Pakeha and Maori women were the first in the world to receive the right to vote.

New Zealand On The World Stage

In 1907, New Zealand became a dominion of the British Empire, able to determine its own foreign policy. By virtue of their relationship with Britain, in 1915, the Australia and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) were enlisted in World War I. Chosen to join the Dardanelles campaign, ANZAC fought at Gallipoli on April 25, 1915, attacking Turkish forces entrenched in the Dardanelles Strait. The battle was a military failure, leading to massive casualties, but winning great respect for the soldiers’ bravery.

In 1935, the victory of the liberal Labour Party spurred the creation of the world’s first universal social welfare system, including free healthcare and low-rent public housing. By the 1940s, New Zealand’s main industries were booming and the country boasted one of the highest standards of living in the world. This prosperity came just in time to be disrupted by World War II; this time, with widespread fighting in the South Pacific, the disturbance was much closer to home. The 28th (Maori) Battalion, in particular, won acclaim in battles fought from Crete to Africa and proved not only fierce in battle but creative and unorthodox in their tactics.

New Zealand was declared fully independent in 1947, but remained economically and politically tied to a number of nations. New Zealand protected itself by independently harnessing its energy resources and signing the ANZUS Pact for the mutual defense of Australia, New Zealand, and the US.

Domestically, the government replicated its international spirit of cooperation with attempts to ease tensions with the Maori. Adherence to traditional beliefs among the Maori had declined dramatically, though the traditional tensions over land and governmental power with Pakeha remained. In 1960, the Waitangi Day Act made a national “day of thanksgiving” in celebration of the bi-racial nature of the coalition created by the 1840 treaty. On February 6, 1974, it became a national public holiday. The 1975 Treaty of Waitangi Act established the Waitangi Tribunal to hear Maori claims against the Crown.

The Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement of 1983 allowed free and unrestricted trade between New Zealand and Australia. With its foreign policy, New Zealand continued to retain an independent streak. In 1987, Labour Party Prime Minister David Lange took a stance in the midst of the Cold War and committed New Zealand to the anti-nuclear movement by barring all nuclear-capable vessels from New Zealand harbors. Although the anti-nuclear movement received criticism from several politicians within New Zealand, it did serve to distance New Zealand from traditional defense alliances with the United States. To better protect itself, the country became more involved with the United Nations. Kiwi troops were sent in large numbers to UN-sponsored missions across the globe, most visibly during the breakup of the former Yugoslavia.

New Zealand Now

Government. Since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, New Zealand has continued to adapt its government to the country’s changing needs without ever signing a written constitution. The Constitution Act of 1986 serves as the guiding principles for the country’s government. New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a single-house, popularly elected parliament. Queen Elizabeth II remains the Queen of New Zealand and the acting head of state while the Prime Minister, the head of parliament, is chosen from the leading political party. In 1993, the majority of New Zealanders voted in favor of a mixed-member proportional representation (MMP) system of government. Under the system, a 120-seat Parliament was established, with a predetermined number of general electorate seats, party list seats (to which the elected party selects members), and Maori seats. New Zealand citizens are accorded two votes, one for the parties and the second for a candidate. Citizens of Maori descent may choose whether to register either on the general or Maori roll.

In recent years, Kiwi politics have been defined by behind-the-scenes maneuvering, fragile power-sharing arrangements, and allegations of corruption. In November 1997, Jenny Shipley of the National Party seized party leadership through a carefully constructed coup. She was sworn in as New Zealand’s first female Prime Minister in December of that year. A primary focus of Shipley’s government was to increase free-market competition and reduce government size. Shipley’s term was thrown into disarray in August 1998 as her delicate coalition began to crack after she fired a leading cabinet member. Due to the fragile coalition between her own conservative National Party and the more liberal New Zealand First, Shipley was often embroiled in controversy, a possible factor in her subsequent electoral loss.

In November 1999, parliamentary elections restored the center-left Labour Party, led by Helen Clark, after nine years in the opposition. Labour Party success was credited in part to support from Maori citizens, following changes in the previously Maori-dominated New Zealand First party. As Prime Minister, Clark has allied herself with the left-wing Alliance Party (which in 2002 became the Progressive Party) but relies on support from the influential Green Party and United Future. In 2002, Clark began a push to replace Queen Elizabeth as the head of state and turn New Zealand into a republic. Although Clark has not yet succeeded in her bid, she remains a popular Prime Minister known for her careful coalition building, concern for social welfare, promotion of New Zealand arts, and stable economic growth. In 2005, New Zealand marked another first for women, becoming the first country in the world to have women in all the highest offices of the land including the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The tenuous balance between parties is sure to make for an exciting round of general elections, scheduled for 2008.

Maori Issues. The recognition of Maori rights continues to be an issue of heated governmental debate. The legacy of the Treaty of Waitangi left a bitter taste in the mouths of many Maori leaders, but in recent years, Maori leaders have made up some lost ground. The Office of Treaty Settlement is the government organization responsible for mediating between Maori claims and the New Zealand Crown. In November 1998, the New Zealand Crown admitted in the Ngai Tahu Deed of Settlement that it had acted unfairly and in violation of the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, loosening claims dating back to 1840 up for consideration in New Zealand courts. Since the new interpretation of the law, the Tainui and Ngai Tahu tribes won $170 million compensation packages. The Maori revival continuesl, receiving extra governmental funding to support and protect Maori language and culture, including the so-called “Sealord Deal” that allocated 20% of the nation’s fish quota to Maori.

Economics And Trade. The turn of the century was a time of redefining trade relations and economic goals for New Zealand. Cooling relations with the US meant New Zealanders had to open their doors to other trade possibilities, including nearby Asia and Australia. PM Helen Clark has made great strides in creating stable trade ties to China and strongly supports Chinese entrance into the World Trade Organization (WTO). Dairy, wine, forest products, and tourism have replaced wool and meat as the primary exports of the island nation. The country continues to struggle to find a balanced way to protect its valuable natural resources while using them to support its citizens’ comfortable lifestyle.